FIPS 140-2/140-3

FIPS 140 is the US federal certification standard for cryptographic modules. It defines four security levels. Level 1 is software-only (audited code, no physical protection). Level 2 adds tamper-evident physical packaging. Level 3 requires active tamper resistance — the module must detect and respond to attacks by zeroing keys. Level 4 mandates environmental-failure resistance (voltage glitches, extreme temperatures).

FIPS 140-2 is the version everyone knows; FIPS 140-3 is the current version (published 2019, becoming mandatory through 2026). The validated-module lists at NIST CMVP are how regulators and enterprise buyers gate procurement decisions.

Cloud KMS offerings (AWS CloudHSM, GCP Cloud KMS HSM, Azure Key Vault HSM) are all FIPS 140-2 Level 3 validated. LearnCoin's tenant signing keys are provisioned inside GCP KMS HSM with protectionLevel: HSM, which maps to Level 3. Compromising a LearnCoin signing key therefore requires compromising the HSM itself — the specific threat model Level 3 is designed against.